Unit 8 Women in Leadership

Three young women standing side by side

Image by Vlada Karpovich from Pexels

Overview

In the previous unit we considered the benefits of inclusive teams and organizations, as well as strategies leaders can employ to create work environments where all members of a team or organization are valued and able to thrive. In much the same vein, in this unit we will explore the benefits of women of leadership, their unique impact on organizational success, and the ways we can create work environments in which women thrive.

We will review the progress of women in leadership, the strengths women leaders bring to team, organizations, and communities, and the experiences of women leaders.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

  • Describe the progress of women in leadership
  • Explain the strengths women leaders bring to teams and organizations
  • Describe the experience of a woman leader

Course Topics

In this unit, we will explore the following topics:

  1. The Contributions of Women Leaders
  2. Diversifying Senior Leadership
  3. Glass Ceiling and Labyrinth

Unit Resources

Online resources will be provided in the unit.

8.1 The Contributions of Women Leaders

“The rise of women into society’s most powerful leadership roles – across sectors and around the globe – ranks among the most profound social transformations in recent decades” (Gender Action Portal, n.d.).

Within the last several decades, women have made significant progress in their involvement and influence in leadership, political representation, academic achievement, entrepreneurship, social justice, and corporations. Women are influencing political policy as cabinet members, holding elected office, and running countries. Women are achieving advanced academic degrees, publishing research, and leading institutions of higher education, school systems, and schools. Women are launching and leading companies, both large and small. Women are leading churches, teaching at theological seminaries, and serving as national religious speakers. Women are leading hospitals, developing novel medical treatments, and winning grants for medical research. In short, women have transformed their involvement in the wide-range of human activity within the last century.

And the results of this involvement has not only transformed the lives of the women themselves, but also has influenced the worlds of business, education, religious organizations, government and the non-profit sector.

However, despite significant progress in the number of women who hold leadership roles, women remain underrepresented in leadership. According to the Canadian Women’s Foundation (n.d.),

“Although Canada’s federal cabinet is now evenly split between men and women, only 27% of the seats in the House of Commons belong to women. Women comprise 19.5% of the board members for Canada’s top 500 companies. Just 8.5% of the highest-paid positions in Canada’s top 100 listed companies are held by women.”” (para. 3)

This persistent inequity presents a troubling picture, particularly when the influence and effectiveness of women leaders is considered. In a global study of MSCI World Index companies, those with “strong female leadership generated a Return on Equity of 10.1% per year versus 7.4% for those without)” (Lee, Marshall, Rallis, & Moscardi, 2015, p. 2). The authors of this study argue that this demonstrated performance improvement, combined with decision-making benefits of having women in senior leadership roles support global efforts to expand the number of women in corporate leadership roles. Likewise, in a study of more than 21,000 companies from 91 countries, Noland, Moran, and Kotschwar (2016) found that companies with women in senior leadership roles was “positively correlated with national characteristics such as girls’ math scores, the absence of discriminatory attitudes toward female executives, and the availability of paternal leave” (p. 1). In other words, having stronger representation of women in leadership not only directly impacts corporations in ways that improve their bottom line, but stronger representation of women is correlated to equity improvements in the larger society.

Bohnet (2016), whose scholarly efforts focus on how to improve gender equity in corporations, puts it this way: “a) Gender equality is the right thing to do, and b) It’s really stupid to not give everyone an equal opportunity and not benefit from 100% of the talent pool” (Bohnet, 2016, 53:46).

The Study of Women in Leadership

While the study of women in leadership was virtually ignored prior to the 1970s, early research (Day & Stogdill, 1972; Deaux, 1976; Dimarco & Witsitt, 1975; Kaley, 1971) reflected ingrained cultural beliefs at the time and asserted that women were inferior leaders to men and lacked skills and traits necessary for managerial success.

Scholars began to explore the question: “Can women lead?” Slowly, opinions started to shift as people experienced women’s leadership in various organizations. In more recent studies, meta-analysis had shown that “contrary to stereotypic expectations, women were not found to lead in a more interpersonally oriented and less task-oriented manner than men” (Northouse, 2019 p. 407). The literature demonstrates that women were evaluated unfavorably when they used a directive or autocratic style (stereotypically male) and both female and male leaders were evaluated more favorably when they used a democratic leadership style (stereotypically feminine). In fact, “recent findings suggest that the devaluation of female leaders by subordinates has been shown to extend to female transformational leaders (Ayman, Korabik, & Morris, 2009, as cited in Northouse, 2019, p. 408).

Today, the primary research questions explored by scholars focus on the benefits that women leaders bring to organizations, as well as an exploration of systemic sexism that often presents barriers to women’s promotion and success in more senior leadership roles.

Progress in women’s engagement in leadership includes change at both the micro and macro level, including “decreasing gender stereotypes, diversifying leadership, equity in maternity/paternity leave, gender equity in domestic responsibilities, and promoting effective negotiations, and use of effective leadership styles” (Simon & Hoyt, 2019, p. 413). These solutions involve individual women leaders, men in leadership, company policies, government policies, and couples navigating responsibilities in the home.

As gender roles are becoming less rigid in the home, so, too, the culture in many North American organizations, and around the globe, is changing – at different rates internationally. Gendered work assumptions are being challenged. There is increasing parity in domestic responsibilities and more women professionals and entrepreneurs.

The issue of gender equality in leadership needs to be addressed at the individual, interpersonal, organizational and societal levels. A more androgynous conception of leadership focusing on best practice is what is needed. How might leaders embrace the challenge?

During the MA Lead program you have an opportunity to recognize your potential as a leader to transform the culture and spark social change, and be leaders who will work to achieve gender equality. Through education that builds competence and confidence, both women and men are mentored towards a leadership approach that is inclusive and transformative. It’s an approach that helps women use their voice to focus on issues that are relevant and about which they are passionate to make a difference.

As you continue in this unit, consider the strengths you have seen in the women in leadership you know.

8.2 Women in Leadership

In 2013, Sheryl Sandberg, COO of Facebook, wrote an immensely popular book about women in leadership. Encouraging women leaders to Lean In to their careers and their leadership. Sandberg (2013) posited that “In the future there will be no female leaders. There will just be leaders” (p. 182).

In fact, in inclusive organizations with strong representation of women in leadership, that is how it feels today – that leaders are simply leaders, regardless of their gender (or ethnicity). Some leaders are women, some are men. In such organizations, leaders are followed, valued or considered effective according to criteria other than their gender.

One might argue that Sandberg is a woman leader – one of few women leaders at the top of Facebook, an organization at the height of social media enterprises. Likewise, in a different organization, a senior woman leader who is one of two female senior executives in an organization with 20 senior leaders, would be considered a woman leader. Both might be effective or ineffective leaders. However, because of their rarity in senior leadership, their actions will likely be attributed not only to them individual, but also to the group (in this case, women) that they represent.

The concept of critical mass, a term emerging from physics, is frequently used to discuss the sociological concepts related to the engagement of a minority group within an enterprise or organization historically dominated by a majority group. In a study of women’s integration into business working groups, Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1977) introduced this concept to discuss the importance of large groups – or a critical mass – within an organization, in order to avoid tokenism (as cited in Gereben Schaefer, et al., 2015).

According to the theory of tokenism, Sandberg’s performance as a leader (a woman leader in tech), will likely be attributed to women leaders in general, as well as to women leaders in tech in particular. Organizations who are predominantly led by men may seek to diversify their organization, often beginning with the intentional recruitment of women in leadership positions – seeking to hire a female senior vice president, senior pastor, head surgeon, non-profit director, or board member – or expand these numbers. However, the theories of critical mass and tokenism, indicate that, while this may be a strong first step, the hiring of one (or a small number) of women into previously male-held positions, will do little to change the culture, instead, setting women up for being impacted by tokenism.

Many organizations who have not yet achieved diversity in their leadership ranks, are often engaged in a process to diversify their leadership team (both in terms of gender and ethnicity), often with slow or limited success. (Although other organizations are intentionally male-led and/or ambivalent about the reality that their senior leaders are exclusively or predominantly male).

As organizations seek to include more women in senior-level positions, they frequently begin by intentionally recruiting a women to a senior role. However, until critical mass is achieved, these women bear a strong burden, often enduring the experience of tokenism.

Kanter (1977) argued that, “Merely adding a few women at a time to an organization is likely to give rise to the consequences of token status… Women (or members of any other underrepresented category) need to be added to total group or organization membership in sufficient proportion to counteract the effects of tokenism” (Kanter, 1977, p. 988).

In my own experience as a leader, I have led in an organization with strong representation of women in leadership (over 50% of senior leaders were women) as well as an organization in which I was one of four women senior leaders (less than 20%) representation. Transitioning from the first institution to the second, I was greeted with this welcome from more junior women managers and employees in the organization, “We’re so glad to have another woman in senior leadership.” Having worked in an organization with a critical mass of women leaders, I no longer thought of myself as a woman leader – but simply as a leader – and was thus a bit disconcerted to be reminded that I now represented more than simply myself – I was the example of what it meant to be a woman leader. I was now in a position in which I could (and did) experience tokenism.

But is critical mass enough to create an environment in which the potential of women leaders is maximized so they – and the organizations they lead – can thrive? And if so, how does an organization transition to a more inclusive organization in which women are more equitably represented in leadership?

Like scholars focused on increasing equity for ethnic minorities in the workplace, Bohnet (2016) argues that training programs are often found to be ineffective in increasing diversity, diminishing bias, or changing behavior. Instead, Bohnet (2016) argues instead to focus on the hiring process, including the ways in which we write job advertisements (particularly for positions or fields that are historically stereotypically male or female), as well as the ways we conduct interviews. Furthermore, Bohnet (2016) argues that panel interview are ineffective, as individual viewpoints become subsumed among the perceptions of other interviewers, who are likely to be informed by their own implicit bias. Instead, Bohnet (2016) argues for structured interviews (with the same questions, in the same order) as well as a hiring process that includes an evaluation of a candidate’s job performance – including tests, presentations, etc., in which you are able to observe the candidate in a real-life job situation.

Promotion is also an important touchpoint in which implicit bias can play a key role in hindering promotion of women. Bohnet (2016) summarizes several studies which have identified the ways in which women are given less support in their early careers, often resulting in underperformance and lost talent.

In the Trusted 10 assignment in the previous unit, we analyzed those in our close circle. Those who are in our inner professional circles are often the ones that we, as leaders, will naturally hire, develop, and promote. In order to create more inclusive organizations, we will need to expand the diversity in our Trusted 10, and go beyond this circle when we are seeking to hire team members, assign a stretch assignment with access to more senior leaders, nominate someone for a leadership development opportunity, or start a new department in our organization. Intentionally identifying people who work hard, who have a track record of effectively working across functions or units may be a relevant indicator of their suitability for these assignments even if they are not in yet in your Trusted 10.

It is common that motivated and eager-to-grow employees, including women and those from diverse backgrounds, will seek other opportunities if not given these opportunities with their current employer. If leaders are able to see past their own bias to identify the talent, performance, and potential in these employees, our organizations will continue to expand in inclusivity – and as the research demonstrates, thrive on a wide range of metrics.

8.3 Glass Ceiling and Labyrinth

As we consider the particular challenges faced by women in leadership, we will read about the complex path to leadership for women and consider research that explores gender and leadership styles, the obstacles encountered and how leaders (both women and men) can create inclusive work environments where women are able to maximize their contributions to the team, organization, or community.

The metaphor of the “glass ceiling” has been used since the 1980s to represent the challenges women face in promotion. This metaphor captures two important elements of barriers faced by women leaders – a concrete barrier that impedes movement, and the invisibility of it. So, while women might be very aware of when they are prevented from moving up, this barrier may be invisible to others, who might even refuse to acknowledge it – instead making arguments such as, “No women ever apply for this role,” “There aren’t any qualified women,” “We interviewed women, but they just didn’t seem like they would be a good fit,” or “This position isn’t really something a woman would be interested in.”

Another metaphor, developed by Eagly and Carli (2007) is the metaphor of a labyrinth. Eagly and Carli (2007) argues that a glass ceiling is too simplistic, and women do, in fact, face barriers throughout their process leadership development. From Eagly and Carli’s (2007) perspectives, a labyrinth is more descriptive of the challenges that women in leadership face. This phenomena is further discussed in Simon and Hoyt (2019) who posit that three important aspects present barriers to women in leadership: human capital, prejudice, and gender differences (p. 405).

  • Human capital challenges often include preparation, including education, previous employment, and opportunity to participate in leadership development experiences. The challenges of balancing work responsibilities are also included in this category (Simon & Hoyt, 2019).
  • Prejudice includes challenges related to stereotypes and bias, which can influence hiring practices, growth opportunities, and promotion (Simon & Hoyt, 2019).
  • Gender differences include the ways in which institutional structure, processes, and culture are designed to support and promote male leaders. Gender differences may also be seen in the way women demonstrate their commitment or aspirations, as well as they ways in which women self-promote (or don’t), how they negotiate (or don’t) and how they are perceived when they do (or don’t) (Simon & Hoyt, 2019).

Summary

The issue of gender equality in leadership needs to be addressed at the individual, interpersonal, organizational and societal levels. A more gender-neutral conception of leadership focusing on best practice is what is needed.

As you continue in your MA Leadership coursework, continue to consider this: how might leaders embrace this challenge? During the MA in Leadership program you have an opportunity to recognize your potential as a leader, to transform the culture and spark social change, and become a leader who will work to achieve gender equality. Through this education program you will continue to build both competence and confidence, allowing you to engage in leadership that is inclusive and transformative, creating inclusive organizations in which all members can use their voices to focus on issues that are relevant and about which they are passionate to make a difference.

Formative Learning Activities (ungraded)

Learning Activity 8.1

  • Read: Northouse (2019) Chapter 15 Gender and Leadership.
  • Read: Rowe & Guerrero (2019) Chapter 13 Women and Leadership.

Learning Activity 8.2: Reflective Journal

  • Take the Gender-Leader Implicit Association Test (Northouse, 2019, Chapter 15).
  • In your Reflective Journal write about how you can foster recognition and a sense of belonging for women in your workplace.

Learning Activity 8.3: Reflective Journal

As you read/view the following resources below, reflect on the progress of women in leadership, their experiences, and the strengths women leaders bring to teams and organizations. Take a moment to make some notes to prepare for your discussion as part of the Community of Inquiry.

8.3.1 Learning Activity 8.4: Community of Inquiry (Discussion)

After reviewing the resources in this unit, write a discussion post in which you describe the differences between the “glass ceiling,” the “labyrinth,” and the ”high bridge” metaphors representing the challenges that result in women being underrepresented in leadership. Which metaphor most closely aligns with your experience as a woman in leadership – or the experience of women in your organization? (You may need to ask them!) Based on representation of women at all levels of your organization, would you consider your work environment to be inclusive of women? Consider the strategies identified in the resources. Which do you think have the most potential to expand leadership inclusivity and foster recognition and a sense of belonging for women in your team, organization, or community?

8.3.2 Learning Activity 8.5: Women in Leadership Interview

In this activity, you will interview a woman in a leadership position, or, if you are a woman in a leadership position yourself, you may choose to respond to the following questions.

Before you interview this leader, first get written permission from the person to post their responses to the questions, as well as their name and position. If they prefer to keep their name and/or position anonymous, be sure to honor that preference.

  1. What is your current leadership role? What do you love about it? What are the challenges?
  2. What are your strengths as a leader? What are your unique contributions to your team, community, or organization?
  3. What benefits do you bring to your organization as a women in leadership?
  4. In what ways have you experienced bias (implicit or explicit) as a women leader? How do you address those challenges?
  5. Do you have any advice or encouragement for men regarding how they can be agents of inclusivity in their organizations?
  6. Do you have any other advice or encouragement for women in leadership?

Once you have responses to the questions, create a post on your discussion and create a brief profile of your chosen leader. Include the answers to the questions above and also (with permission) link to their social media profiles. Additionally, include an analysis of the leadership theory you think this leader most closely represents.